Differential settlement refers to uneven ground movement where one part of a structure settles more than another. It can cause cracking, tilting, and structural distortion if unmonitored. Using instruments such as leveling points and 3D prisms, engineers calculate differential movement to assess stability. Monitoring this behavior ensures long-term safety and aids in implementing corrective design measures when required.
Rod extensometers are designed to measure displacement between multiple anchor points and a reference head at the surface. Installed in boreholes, they detect subtle ground or rock movements at different depths. This data helps evaluate stress redistribution and deformation patterns in tunnels, caverns, and excavations, ensuring early detection of structural movement and maintaining stability in geotechnical applications.
Extensometers measure vertical ground displacement such as settlement or heave. Using magnets or anchors set at various depths, they record movement relative to a stable datum. Extensometers help identify compression and extension zones within soil or rock and are vital for understanding deformation around tunnels, foundations, and slopes. They are available in manual and vibrating wire variants for different monitoring needs.
Shape Accel Arrays (SAA) measure 3D deformation profiles using MEMS accelerometers along flexible segments. These sensors capture both vertical and horizontal movement, providing a detailed shape of deformation over depth. Typically installed in small PVC conduits grouted within boreholes, SAAs are ideal for tunnel linings, embankments, and ground settlement monitoring, offering robust data for visualization and analysis.
In-place inclinometers (IPI) are permanently installed sensors designed for continuous measurement of lateral displacement. They consist of a chain of probes connected to a data logger, allowing real-time deformation monitoring. Commonly used in dams, embankments, retaining walls, and tunnels, IPIs are highly effective in identifying progressive ground movement without requiring manual data collection.
Inclinometers are used to measure lateral or horizontal movement within soil or structures below ground level. They consist of a probe inserted into a casing that measures tilt, which is converted into displacement. These instruments are essential for monitoring ground movement in slopes, retaining walls, and deep excavations, providing early warning of instability and supporting design verification.
A compound or composite instrument is a setup that combines multiple interdependent sensors to monitor different parameters simultaneously. Each sensor (child) has its own calculation, while the main (parent) instrument defines the loop and direction of data processing. Examples include inclinometers, shape accel arrays, liquid leveling cells, and extensometers — all used for integrated geotechnical monitoring and analysis.
Load cells measure the force or load applied to structural members by converting mechanical force into an electrical signal, which is later calibrated into engineering units such as Newtons or kilograms. They are widely used for determining load in ground anchors, struts, and props within deep excavations, tunnels, and bridges. Load cells provide real-time data to monitor compressive and tensile forces, supporting safety and performance assessments.
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